Cyprus

Droughts

Vulnerabilities - Cyprus

During the 21st century longer dry spells are likely to be common, up to 2 to 4 weeks increase in the south of Italy and the Peloponese region in Greece, from the south of Iberian Peninsula to Morocco, and in Libya (17).

The eastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus is currently trying to tackle its water shortage problem with household rationing, importing 8 million cubic metres of water in tanker ships from neighbouring Greece, and desalination plants. The Kouris Dam, the main source for the pipeline serving the districts of the capital Nicosia and the southern regions of Limassol and Larnaca, has been almost empty in dry years in the past. The depletion of the island's aquifer is a very serious problem (18).

In Cyprus, Water Boards operating in Nicosia, Limassol and Larnaca that serve more than two thirds of Cyprus population had to apply severe restriction measures in the late 1990s. In Nicosia, only 80% of the quantities supplied to consumers were provided under normal conditions of continuous flow (86% in Limassol and 70% in Larnaca). Water restrictions also resulted in high operation and maintenance costs. Similar conditions prevailed in the rest of the island.

Agriculture

Farmers located in Cyprus still bear higher water costs today, due to deeper groundwater pumping and insufficient surface water resources. The situation results in income losses and in decrease in agricultural competitiveness. The situation has also resulted in a heavy investment strategy in order to bring the number of interruptions down. Heavy over-pumping in reaction to increasing water demand or to mitigate drought effects often leads to seawater intrusion in many coastal aquifers (19).

The definition of drought

Drought is a natural phenomenon defined as sustained and extensive occurrence of below average water availability. Drought should not be confused with aridity, which is a long-term average feature of a dry climate. It is also distinct from water scarcity, which constitutes an imbalance between water availability and demand (1).

Three general types of drought may be recognized (7):

Vulnerabilities in Europe

The European Commission has estimated that at least 11 % of Europe's population and 17 % of its territory have been affected by water scarcity to date and put the cost of droughts in Europe over the past thirty years at EUR 100 billion (1).The drought of 2003 caused a total economic cost of over €13 billion in around twenty European countries (2,7).

Vulnerabilities – European trends in the past

There is no clear evidence that a widespread change in droughts has occurred in Europe over the last century or over the last decades (6). There is no evidence that river flow droughts have become more severe or frequent over Europe in general in recent decades (3), nor is there conclusive proof of a general increase in summer dryness in Europe over the past 50 years due to reduced summer moisture availability (4). Strong increases in the area of combined severe dry and wet conditions in Europe over the last three decades have also been identified, though, and it has been suggested that without global warming droughts would have been smaller and less pervasive (13).

Vulnerabilities – Future projections for Europe

River flow droughts are projected to increase in frequency and severity in southern and south‑eastern Europe, the United Kingdom, France, Benelux, and western parts of Germany over the coming decades. In snow-dominated regions, where droughts typically occur in winter, river flow droughts are projected to become less severe because a lower fraction of precipitation will fall as snow in warmer winters. In most of Europe, the projected decrease in summer precipitation, accompanied by rising temperatures which enhances evaporative demand, may lead to more frequent and intense summer droughts (9).

As a result of both climate change and increasing water withdrawals, more river basins will be affected by severe water stress, resulting in increased competition for water resources. The regions most prone to an increase in drought risk are the Mediterranean and south-eastern parts of Europe, which already suffer most from water stress (10).

According to research based on six regional climate models, there is not a simple north–south pattern of decreased–increased drought, with models projecting fewer events for parts of the Iberian Peninsula and parts of the Mediterranean. Considerable uncertainty exists at the regional scale. For example, for Britain and northern Spain, different models project both increases and decreases. … All models project longer and more severe droughts in the Mediterranean and shorter, less severe, events for Scandinavia with greater uncertainty as to the direction of change for the rest of Europe (14).

The use of six regional climate models has demonstrated the range of uncertainty in future projections of even mean precipitation across Europe, but also enables some generalizations to be made. Increases in precipitation are likely during winter and these are likely to be largest and most persistent for northern Europe. In contrast, large decreases in precipitation are likely during summer, these being largest in southern Europe (14).

For longer-duration droughts there is a clearer spatial pattern, which indicates fewer droughts in northern Europe due to larger increases in winter precipitation and more droughts of increasing severity in the south (14).

Biodiversity

Droughts may strongly affect biodiversity all across Europe. Some examples (8):

The environmental impacts of droughts can be exacerbated by unsustainable trends in water use. The worst combination appears when drought strikes freshwater ecosystems already weakened by excessive water withdrawals. For example, Lake Iliki, some 100 km northeast of Athens, has been reduced to a third of its original size, partly by a severe drought in 2000 but also as a result of increasing drinking water demand. Likewise, Lake Djoran, located between Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, is at risk of drying up, thus threatening one of the richest inland fishing stocks in Europe.
Wetlands are particularly vulnerable to drought. The drought that affected Spain in the first half of the 1990s reduced by 97 % the flooded area of the Natural Park of the ‘Tablas de Daimiel’, the most important wetland area in the interior of the Iberian peninsula. Here too, water withdrawals, in this case for agricultural purposes, contributed to the loss.
Droughts can cause the deterioration of water quality in rivers, lakes and reservoirs by exacerbating algal blooms that reduce the oxygen available for aquatic species. In the summer of 1999, for instance, these processes affected many lakes in Finland.
Droughts may also weaken the resistance of certain plant species to plagues and increase their susceptibility to forest fires, as happened in the Greek island of Samos in the summer of 2000.
Finally, drought can threaten the very survival of species in certain areas. The prolonged drought that affected southern Spain in the mid 1990s caused a high mortality rate among maritime pines and severely withered green oak and cork oak forests.

Soil erosion

Droughts may also trigger soil erosion, mainly in Mediterranean areas. One way this happens is through a reduction in vegetation cover caused by forest fires or by increased plant mortality due to water stress. In addition, when the soil is very dry, the water infiltration rate decreases. Consequently, if a period of drought is followed by heavy storms, erosion is triggered by surface runoff. The problem is especially acute in the arid and semi-arid Mediterranean areas where the process may lead to desertification (8).

Adaptation strategies

Pan-European

Europe should view 2003 as a wake-up call. The 2003 drought should be the catalyst for actions aimed at reducing drought impacts across all relevant sectors (7). Drought is not mentioned in European energy policies. Similarly European transport navigation policy makes no reference to low flow conditions, whereas health policies make few provisions for reduced water supplies and deteriorating water quality. Drought is one criterion for exemption to the requirements of the Water Framework Directive – an increasingly likely situation. It makes no provision for managing biodiversity protection during severe droughts (7).

In contrast to internal policy, drought is addressed as a real issue in EU development policies. Drought is seen as a threat to sustainable development, a humanitarian issue and a driver of mass migration and political instability (7).

EU policy orientations for future action

According to the EU, policy orientations for the way forward are (20):

Putting the right price tag on water;
Allocating water and water-related funding more efficiently: Improving land-use planning, and Financing water efficiency;
Improving drought risk management: Developing drought risk management plans, Developing an observatory and an early warning system on droughts, and Further optimising the use of the EU Solidarity Fund and European Mechanism for Civil Protection;
Considering additional water supply infrastructures;
Fostering water efficient technologies and practices;
Fostering the emergence of a water-saving culture in Europe;
Improve knowledge and data collection: A water scarcity and drought information system throughout Europe, and Research and technological development opportunities.

National

Adaptation activities currently seem to be focused on flood management and defence, while adaptation measures related to the management of water scarcity and drought, although recognized as equally damaging, do not yet seem to be widespread (2).

Desalination has been introduced in order to increase water security. As a consequence, prices for domestic water supply and products were put up (19).

Promotion of improved waste water reuse where appropriate could result in the replacement of approximately 20% of the future water abstractions of Cyprus (19).

References

The references below are cited in full in a separate map 'References'. Please click here if you are looking for the full references for Cyprus.

EC (2007a), in: EEA (2009)
Anderson (ed.) (2007)
Hisdal et al. (2001), in:EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Van der Schrier et al.(2006), in:EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Hanneford and Marsh (2006), in:EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Van Lanen et al. (2007), in: EEA (2009)
Eisenreich (2005)
EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Douville et al. (2002); Lehner et al. (2006); Feyen and Dankers (2008), in:EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Alcamo et al. (2003); Schröter et al. (2005), in: EEA, JRC and WHO (2008)
Demuth and Stahl, 2001, in: Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Lloyd-Hughes and Saunders (2002), in: Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Dai et al. (2004), in: Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Lehner et al. (2006), in: Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Lehner and Döll (2001), in: Blenkinsop and Fowler (2007)
Giannakopoulos et al. (2005)
http://www.kosisland.info
European Commission (DG Environment) (2007)
Commission of the European Communities (2007)

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